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== Syntax 1 Wiki ==
[[Syntax_1_Wiki|Syntax 1 Wiki]]


[[Constraint-based_Syntax_2|Syntax 2]]


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[[https://www.english-linguistics.de/grammarparadise/wiki/index.php/Words Words]]


=== Words ===
[[Grammar-Writing|Grammar Writing]]


Syntax deals with the question of how the phrases of a language are built up from smaller phrases and words.
[[GS-2000|Ginzburg and Sag (2000)]]


[[https://www.english-linguistics.de/grammarparadise/wiki/index.php/Parts_of_speech Parts of Speech]]
[[HPSG|Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar]]


=== Parts of Speech ===
[[Syntax_1_Wiki_Aenderungen|Syntax 1 Wiki: Änderungen]]


Every English word belongs to a '''part of speech''' like ''noun'', ''verb'', or ''adjective'', and many words belong to more than one (for instance, the word cook can be a noun or a verb). You can think of a part of speech as a set of words that share some grammatical property, e.g. nouns often refer to objects and can be singular or plural, verbs often refer to event and can appear with different tense affixes, etc.


Thus, for every part of speech, there are a number of tests that one can use to check whether a given word belongs to that part of speech. While there are certain cases where the tests to not give a clear result on the part of speech of a word, the typical situation is one where the tests unambiguously favor one part of speech over the others.
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<embedvideo service="youtube" dimensions="400">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRiX8Jiq_Z4</embedvideo>
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In the following sections, we present the tests for each part of speech.


==Nouns==
[ Parts of the clause]


* semantic test:
<!-- This is a comment -->
** Nouns name persons, things or places
  &forall;''x'' ('''cat'''(''x'') : &exist;''y''('''likes(''y'', ''x''))  
* morphological test:
  &sup;  &and; &not;  &or; &equiv; &forall;  &exist; &aelig; &oplus; &Oslash; &rArr; <u>Unterstrichen</u> &rarr; &rArr;
** Nouns can combine with a plural morpheme (-(e)s)
* syntactic test
Text davor
** Nouns can occur with the possessive 's, i.e. in the environment:
<blockquote>Blockquote</blockquote>
*__ 's
Text danach
** Nouns can occur between a determiner and a verb, i.e. in the environment: Det __ V


==Verbs==
*semantic test:
**Verbs refer to actions
*morphological test:
**Verbs can combine with a 3rd singular inflection (-(e)s)
**Verbs can combine with a past tense inflection (-ed)
**Verbs can combine with -ing (in the contexts: __-ing can be fun, Pat was __-ing)
*syntactic test
**Verbs can occur directly after can: They can __ ...
*Verbs can occur directly after wanted to: Pat wanted to __ ...


==Adjectives==
*semantic test:
**Adjectives refer to properties
*morphological test:
**Adjectives can combine with comparative and superlative markers (-er/-est, or more/most)
**Adjectives can combine with -ly to form an adverb
*syntactic test
**Adjectives can be between a determiner and a noun, i.e. in the environment ('attributive use'):\\ Det __ N (Pat read the __ book.)
**Adjectives can occur in the following copula ('linking') verbs ('predicative use'): They felt/seemed/sounded __


==Adverbs==
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
*semantic test:
<font size="3">
**Adverbs refer to the manner, location, time or frequency of an action
*morphological test: -
*syntactic test
**Adverbs can occur in the following diagnostic environment: Pat treats Chris very __
 
==Prepositions==
 
*there is no clear semantic criterion.
*since prepositions don't show morphological change in English, there is no morphological criterion either.
*synctactic test:
**Prepositions occur right before an NP, i.e. in the environment: __ NP
 
==Minor Parts of Speech==
General characteristics:
* the word classes can be defined by listing all elements.
* the words of minor parts of speech have a 'grammatical' meaning, i.e. they are function words. They express a grammatical, meta-linguistic or indexical function.
closed word classes (i.e. new words in the language will not belong to any of these classes)
* diachronically words of minor parts of speech emerge and disappear very slowly if at all. A change in a minor class usually goes hand in hand with a change in the grammar.
* they are heterogeneous and difficult to group. Therefore, we cannot provide tests, but since we are dealing with closed classes, we can provide listings.
 
These properties contrast with those of the major parts of speech.
 
 
==Determiners==
General characteristics:
* Determiners are functional words at the left of a noun phrase, i.e. they occur in environments such as __ student(s) called., Pat wondered about __ student(s).
 
Subclasses:
*Articles: a(n), the
*Demonstratives: this/these, that/those
*Quantifiers:
**simple quantifiers: all, much, some, few, little
**complex quantifiers: a couple, a few, a great deal of, lots of, not any, hardly any
*Numerals: two
 
Reference:
Kaplan, Jeffrey P. (1989): English Grammar - Principles and Facts (2nd edition). New Jersey.
 
==Auxiliaries==
* Examples: may, can, will, shall, might, could
* English auxiliaries differ from verbs in that they show the following properties, the NICE properties:
** Negation:
A finite auxiliary precedes the negation particle not to negate a sentence.
# Pat will not walk home.
# Pat walked not home.
* Inversion:
A finite auxiliary stands at the beginning of a sentence in yes/no-questions.
Will Pat walk home?
Walked Pat home?
Contraction:
There is an idiosyncratic contraction form of the auxiliary and the negation particle.
won't, can't
Ellipsis:
An auxiliary can occur in VP ellipsis, i.e. at the end of a sentence when a VP is missing.
Pat should walk home and Mary might, too.
*Pat walked home and Mary, too.
General properties of the modal auxiliaries:
no inflection for 3rd singular
only a finite form
Problematic cases:
The verbs be and have have the properties of both verbs and auxiliaries.
The support verb do is similar to be and have, but only has a finite form.
Infinitival to shows many properties of auxiliaries, and is considered an auxiliary in many theories of grammar.
 
==Conjunctions==
Subclasses:
Coordinate conjunctions:
examples:
simple coordinate conjunctions: and, or, but
complex coordinate conjunctions: either ... or, neither ... nor
coordinate conjunctions link two phrases of the same type.
Subordinate conjunctions:
examples: since, because, while, although, when, before, after, until, unless, as, if
Difference between coordinate and subordinate conjunctions:
Pat went to the theater and Chris stayed home.
* And Chris stayed home Pat went to the theater.
Pat went to the theater while Chris stayed home.
While Chris stayed home, Pat went to the theater.
Complementizers are syntactically similar to subordinate conjunctions.
 
==Complementizers==
Introduce complement clauses
Examples:
introduce finite complement clauses: that (declaratives), if/whether (interrogative)
Pat thinks [that Chris lives in New York].
Pat knows [that/whether Chris lives in New York].
Pat wonders [if/whether Chris lives in New York].
introduce infinitival complement clauses: for
Pat wants [for Chris to win the price].
 
==Particles==
Particles usually have the same form as prepositions
Examples: call sth. off, look sth. up
characteristics:
Particles combine with certain verbs to form non-predictable and mainly idiomatic particle verbs.
They contrast from prepositions in that they are more flexible:
'V Part NP' and 'V NP Part' are both possible (The umpire called off the game., The umpire called the game off)
For prepositions, only 'V P NP' is possible (The teacher fell off the chair, *The teacher fell the chair off.)
When the NP is a pronoun, only 'V Pron Part' is possible (The umpire called it off/ *off it.). This ordering is excluded for prepositions (*'V Pron P', *The teacher fell it off.)
 
==The Infinitival Marker to==
General characteristics:
Infinitival to precedes a base form verb.
The distribution is like that of auxiliaries, but in infinitival clauses:
position between the subject and the verb phrase
It is crucial [for John to show an interest].
It is crucial that John should show an interest.
ellipsis
I know I should [go to the dentist’s], but I just don’t want to.
I don’t really want to [go to the dentist’s], but I know I should.
 
==The Negative Marker Not==
Can follow a finite auxiliary to negate a sentence, but not a finite verb.
I should not have said that.
* I not slept well last night.
Can precede any major phrase for so-called constituent negation.
NP: Pat read not [NP: this book] but the other one.
VP: Chris is likely not [VP: to get the scholarship]
PP: Sandy put the book not [PP: on the shelf] but next to it.
Forms: not, n't (when cliticised to an auxiliary)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
<quiz display=simple>
{Determine the part of speech of the words in the sentence.<br /> Use the following part of speech labels: A, Adv, Cj, C, D, N, P, V
|type="{}"}
 
Alex/{ N _5 } talked/{ V _5 } to/{ P _5 } my/{ D _5 } best/{ A _5 } friend/{ N _5 }.
|| Solution: N V P D A N
</quiz>
 
<quiz display=simple>
{Determine the part of speech of the words in the sentence.<br />Use the following part of speech labels: A, Adv, Cj, C, D, N, P, V
|type="{}"}
 
You/{ N _5 } might/{ V _5 } suspect/{ V _5 } that/{ C _5 } Pat/{ N _5 } is/{ V _5 } a/{ D _3 } genius/{ N _5}.
|| Solution: N V V C N V D N
</quiz>
 
<quiz display=simple>
{Determine the part of speech of the words in the sentence.<br />Use the following part of speech labels: A, Adv, Cj, C, D, N, P, V
|type="{}"}
 
The/{ D _5} title/{ N _5 } of/{ P _5 } a/{ D _5 } book/{ N _5 } largely/{ Adv _5 }
|| Solution: D N P D N Adv V
 
determines/{ V _5 } whether/{ C _5 } it/{ N _5 } will/{ V _5 } be/{ V _5 } successful/{ A _5 } or/{ Cj _5 } a/{ D _5 } flop/{ N _5 }.
|| Solution: V C N V V A Cj D N
</quiz>
 
=== Semantic analysis of sentences into predicates and arguments ===
 
Note: Many of the sentences in this section are taken from or based on examples in Hornby, A.S. (1975) Guide to Patterns and Usage in English. Second Edition. Cornelsen & Oxford University Press.
 
<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!
 
''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>You <u>surprised</u> them.</span>
| type="{}" }
 
Predicate:      { x surprises y _15}
 
x = { You _10}
y = { them _10}
z = { - _10}
</quiz>
 
<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!
 
''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>We went to Wales.</span>
| type="{}" }
 
Predicate:      { x goes y _15}
 
x = { We _10}
y = { Wales _10}
z = { - _10}
</quiz>
 
 
<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!
 
''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>The plane landed.</span>
| type="{}" }
 
Predicate:      { x landed _15}
 
x = { The plane _10}
y = { - _10}
z = { - _10}
</quiz>
 
<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!
 
''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>Steven met my most favorite teacher.</span>
| type="{}" }
 
Predicate:      { x meets y _15}
 
x = { Steven _10}
y = { my most favorite teacher_30}
z = { - _10}
</quiz>
 
<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!
 
''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>She said that it would rain.</span>
| type="{}" }
 
Predicate:      { x says y _15}
 
x = { She _10}
y = { that it would rain _25}
z = { - _10}
</quiz>
 
<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!
 
''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>Many of his friends consider Joe somewhat arrogant.</span>
| type="{}" }
 
Predicate:      { x consider y z _15}
 
x = { Many of his friends _25}
y = { Joe _10}
z = { somewhat arrogant _20}
</quiz>
 
 
<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!


''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>We need to talk to Lilly about her behavior.</span>
Font size 3
| type="{}" }


Predicate:      { x talk y z _15}
</font>


x = { We _10}
<span style="color: red>Text color</span>
y = { to Lilly _10}
z = { about her behavior _20}
</quiz>


<quiz display=simple>
[<sub>NP</sub> labeled brackets ]
{ Fill in the gaps!


''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>The plane landed.</span>
Superscripts<sup>1</sup>
| type="{}" }


Predicate:       { x lands _15}
Definitionsliste:


x = { The plane _10}
;Begriff 1
y = { - _10}
: Beschreibung 1
z = { - _10}
;Begriff 2
</quiz>
: Beschreibung 2-1
: Beschreibung 2-2


Text einrücken:


<quiz display=simple>
: Einfache Einrückung
{ Fill in the gaps!
:: Doppelte Einrückung
::::: Mehrfache Einrückung


''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>I talked to her.</span>
Nummered list:
| type="{}" }


Predicate:      { x talks y _15}
# Erstes Element der ersten Ebene
## Erstes Element der zweiten Ebene
## Zweites Element der zweiten Ebene
# Zweites Element


x = { I _10}
Bulleted lists:
y = { to her _10}
z = { - _10}
</quiz>


* Erstes Element der ersten Ebene
** Erstes Element der zweiten Ebene
** Zweites Element der zweiten Ebene
* Zweites Element


<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!


''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>We gave Lilly a bike.</span>
| type="{}" }


Predicate:      { x gives y z _15}


x = { We _10}
[[File:employees.jpg]]
y = { Lilly _10}
[[File:books.jpg]]
z = { bike _10}
[[File:iphones.png]]
</quiz>
[[File:pos-jpg.jpg]]
[[File:pos-v-1.jpg]]
[[File:pos-v-2.jpg]]


<quiz display=simple>
{ Fill in the gaps!


''Example:'' <span style="color: blue>Someone pushed Lilly into the flowers.</span>
| type="{}" }


Predicate:      { x pushes y z _15}


x = { Someone _10}
y = { Lilly _10}
z = { into the flowers _20}
</quiz>




Latest revision as of 08:16, 10 October 2017

Syntax 1 Wiki

Syntax 2


Grammar Writing

Ginzburg and Sag (2000)

Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar

Syntax 1 Wiki: Änderungen



[ Parts of the clause] 

 ∀x (cat(x) : ∃y(likes(y, x)) 
 ⊃  ∧ ¬  ∨ ≡ ∀   ∃ æ ⊕ Ø ⇒ Unterstrichen → ⇒

Text davor

Blockquote

Text danach


Font size 3

Text color

[NP labeled brackets ]

Superscripts1

Definitionsliste:

Begriff 1
Beschreibung 1
Begriff 2
Beschreibung 2-1
Beschreibung 2-2

Text einrücken:

Einfache Einrückung
Doppelte Einrückung
Mehrfache Einrückung

Nummered list:

  1. Erstes Element der ersten Ebene
    1. Erstes Element der zweiten Ebene
    2. Zweites Element der zweiten Ebene
  2. Zweites Element

Bulleted lists:

  • Erstes Element der ersten Ebene
    • Erstes Element der zweiten Ebene
    • Zweites Element der zweiten Ebene
  • Zweites Element



Employees.jpg Books.jpg Iphones.png Pos-jpg.jpg Pos-v-1.jpg Pos-v-2.jpg






Establishing the head of a phrase

Establish what phrase the words below form and identify the head of the phrase!

Example: surprised them.

The words above form a

. The head of this phrase is the

.


Example: with a friend.

The words above form a

. The head of this phrase is the

.


Valence

2. Kim needs new shoes. 3. Kim talked to the student. 4. Kim sent the student to Robin. 5. Kim lent Robin a bicycle. 6. Kim told Robin that the student likes her. 7. Kim suggested to Robin that the student likes her. 8. Kim wants [to eat an apple.] 9. Kim believes Robin to like the student. 10. Kim seems to like the student. 11. Kim is intelligent. 12. Kim found the movie interesting. 13. Kim talked to Robin about the student. 14. Kim saw Robin talk to the student. 15. The student amuses Kim. 16. Kim came out of the room.









Words

Verb SUBJ COMPS
snore <NP> <>
own <NP> <NP>
put <NP> <NP,NP> 


Verb         SUBJ         COMPS

snore        <NP>         <>
own          <NP>         <NP>
put          <NP>         <NP,PP>



When you look up the word scissors in the Oxford Learner's Dictionary, you are given the following information about it:

Phonology scissors
Part of speech noun
Number plural
Content a tool for cutting paper ...

The following representation shows how we will structure the information in a word in this course:

Sign.jpg



Determine the syntactic categories of the following groups of words in the sentences.
Use the following labels: AP, AdvP, NP, PP, VP. Write "-" if the group of words does not form a constitutent.
Example: [S: Pat [VP: will [VP: wait [PP: for Alex]]]]

a. [

Alex [

talked [

to [

my best friend]]]]
b. [

[

The president] [

announced [CP: that [

there [

will [

be [

no further taxes]]]]]]].




Analyze the following phrases:

read the paper
Head:

Category:


Complement 1:

Category:


Complement 2:

Category:



http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Syntax/Syntax

Parts of the clause

A video on constituent tests

A video on the concept grammar

Sentence meaning


<iframe width="420" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JRiX8Jiq_Z4"> </iframe>








Quiz question types

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